Dissent about nuclear safety Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dissent about nuclear safety - Case Study Example The performance of the heat exchangers is substandard, but the loss of one can lead to heat exchange problems in future. Alison is well aware of this fact and also of another reality that continued operation of both heat exchangers can cost her company millions of dollars. But, going along with the JCO means that Alison does something which does not maximize utility in an even manner and which is also worthy of punishment because problems are anticipated despite good intentions to save the company. When the time to vote arrives, Alison should not vote in favour of the JCO for the same reasons expressed already in this discussion. It would not be wrong for her to cast a dissenting vote even if future calculations show that using a single heat exchanger does not cause any heat exchange problems for two reasons. First, outcomes of an act matter the most and second, intellectual pleasure which would result from safe outcomes supersedes physical pleasure which members of PNSRC would exper ience from cost

Environmental Influences On Human Behavior Essay Example for Free

Environmental Influences On Human Behavior Essay Eating disorder is a condition wherein an individual’s eating behavior of eating or not eating is influenced by a psychological impulse, instead of a physiological need. Individuals with eating disorders generally choose to ignore the signals their bodies send out that nourishment is needed for maintenance or that enough food has already been consumed. One general feature commonly observed in an individual with an eating disorder is abnormal weight, which may be either above or below the normal weight. Normal weight has been defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as having a body mass index (BMI) of 18. 5 to 24. 9 kg/m2 (Deurenberg and Yap, 1999; Weisell, 2002). BMI is the ratio of an individual’s weight in kilograms (kg) to his heights in meters squared (m2). An individual with a BMI of 25 to 29 kg/m2 is classified as overweight, those with BMI greater than or equal to 30 kg/m2 are categorized as moderately obese, and people with BMI of 40 kg/m2 and above are identified as morbidly obese. Obesity was earlier considered as an imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Today, obesity is regarded as a disease that is strongly influenced by genetic, physiologic and behavioral factors (Jequier and Tappy, 1999). The global estimate of overweight people is currently 1. 2 billion, of which at least 300 million are classified as obese. Obesity has been identified as a preventable health risk, but unfortunately, the mortality rate of this disease is still high, contributing to approximately 300,000 deaths each year in the United States alone. Since the cases of overweight and obesity are continually increasing without any preference to economic status of a country, health governing bodies have put in a significant effort to promote awareness of this disease and intervention programs that would teach the public of the risks of being overweight and/or obese. A major factor that influences such excessive weight gain is the poor lifestyle choices individuals make, in terms of their eating, exercising and physical activities. Binge eating is another eating disorder that is characterized by consuming huge amounts of food in order to achieve the strong feeling of being full. This disorder is generally involved with eating bouts even when an individual is not hungry. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that is recognized in two forms- the restricting type and the binge-eating/purging types (APA, 1994). The restricting type of anorexia nervosa involves the absolute inhibition of food consumption and does not accompany any purging or binge-eating actions. The binge-eating type of anorexia nervosa is commonly characterized by cycles of binge-eating and purging. The classic symptom of anorexia nervosa is subjecting one’s self to a starvation condition, with the main goal of preventing or avoiding gaining weight or sensing that any fat is deposited in the body. The psychological angle with anorexia nervosa is that the individual perceives himself as overweight yet actually, their weight is already below normal. The extreme condition of anorexia nervosa usually involves death due to severe malnutrition. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder that is characterized by cycles of binge eating, purging and the employment of laxatives to remove any food that has been consumed (APA, 1994). Bulimia nervosa may be differentiated from anorexia nervosa through the feature that the individuals afflicted with this eating disorder typically have normal or above-average weights. In addition, individuals with anorexia nervosa can strongly inhibit their food intake, while individuals with bulimia nervosa find difficulty in avoiding food consumption. Bulimic individuals commonly carry a psychological feeling of guilt and shame of eating so much food, hence they try to appease themselves of their eating faults through purging and chemical elimination of the food they ate through the use of laxatives. They consider such activities as remedies or cleansing rituals so that they can immediately purify themselves of the disgrace they made from eating huge amounts of food. To date, the exact cause of bulimia remains unknown, yet there are theories that this eating disorder is strongly associated to depression and anxiety, however, a precise correlation of this cause still has to be investigated. Another theory involves the motivation of the bulimic individual to escape from reality, by treating for as a comfort instead of a source of energy and nutrition for their bodies. Childhood experiences may also possibly play a role in the cause of bulimia, because young children are often given different types of food in order to pacify them or to reward them for particular activities. Society may also play a role in bulimia, because the media strongly endorses that being thin is good, beautiful and acceptable. It has been suggested that eating disorders may be physiologically influenced by serotonin and norepinephrine. It has also been suggested that anorexia is more frequently observed in females in the Western world (Suematsu, 1986). Several theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism behind hunger and eating in overweight and obese individuals. The internal-external theory of Schachter (1971) states that hunger is influenced by external signals such as time, as shown in their experiments involving manipulation of clock rates and counting the consumption of crackers by the subjects. The research showed that faster ticking clocks that would reach meal times earlier would influence the subjects to eat earlier, while slower ticking close would influence subjects to eat later during the day. This theory strengthened the hypothesis that obese people tend to â€Å"feel† hungry based on the time of the day, and not based of the real sensation of hunger. The sensation of hungry in normal individuals is generally induced by internal signals such as an increased appetite or need to eat. The boundary theory of hunger considers the cognitive influence of hunger and satiety, wherein an individual determines the amount of food he should take in, as their limit or boundary (Hermand and Polivy, 1984). During diet regimes, the amount of food an individual eats is a little less than the set amount or boundary and in turn, the body physiologically adapts to the available sources of energy. In overweight and obese individuals, the boundary of food intake is significantly higher than an individual of normal weight. A third theory explaining the relation between excessive weight gain and eating is the set point theory, which is essentially based on the control of the hypothalamus on the body’s predetermined weight. Such set point of weight will be biologically maintained through the natural way, regardless of efforts to loss weight through diets and other weight loss regimens. A decreased intake of calories will not perturb the hypothalamus in its self-regulation of body weight. These theories are comparatively similar in terms of their goal of attempting to describe the mechanisms of obesity. The theories all emphasized that obesity is not influenced by a single factor, such as plain and simple overeating. These theories actually describe external influences of factors that result in overeating. In the external-internal theory identifies the time of the day as the major factor that triggers hunger. For the boundary theory, the individual himself, most probably with the cerebellum as the major organ, determines the amount of food he will eat. As for the set point theory, the hypothalamus controls the individual’s body weight. It is interesting to note that what the society has perceived as overweight is not really caused by a simple excessive hunger that stems from the need of the stomach to carry more food, but actually a more complex network involving the digestive system, the central nervous system and the immediate environment. Treatment for eating disorder often involves physical and psychological approaches. Psychotherapy serves as the main treatment for eating disorders, which often involves sessions with a therapist to discuss issues such as anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and body image concerns. The therapist generally emphasizes the relationship of one’s thoughts and eating activities, as well as teaching the patient that food is a source of nourishment and not a source of comfort or escape. Antidepressants may be prescribed to an individual with an eating disorder, to regulate the emotions of the depressed individual. The physician will also need to regularly check the physical vital signs of the patient, in order to monitor whether the patient is gaining weight and to determine whether any other complications may be present in the individual. Dieticians will design a well-balanced diet for an individual with an eating disorder, as well as educate the person of the nutritional value of every type of food that is consumed. The theories of hunger and eating disorders are based on the concept of primary motivation, which is mainly an interplay between psychology and the biological need to provide energy to the proper functioning of the human body. It is more complicated than the straightforward feeding mechanisms in other organisms because eating in the other species is singly influenced by the need to provide food for the normal physiology of the body. In human beings that have a more complex brain system due to evolution, we have acquired the additional capability to feed our minds, and even our souls, so to speak figuratively. It is important to individuals to understand that the mind is a powerful organ that can influence the actions and activities of the rest of the body but it is also more important to know that such choices of eating the right amount of food, as well as the right type of food, is a conscious and voluntary choice, and the consequences should be seriously considered.

The Crimean War :: European Europe History

The Crimean War The Crimean War started because France and Russia wanted control over the Middle East and surrounding areas. The war lasted from 1856 to 1858, just under two years. The more important parts of the war are the causes and events that led up to it, the battle of the Alma, the naval wars of various seas and Sevastopol, the heavily fortified base of the Russian fleet. MLV Ffrench Blake states that the main cause of the war was "Russia's desire for territorial expansion, particularly towards a port in the Mediterranean." (Blake 1). He also believes that the inevitable drift into the war was aggravated by the back and forth nature of the rulers of the opposing countries and bad diplomacy. The immediate excuses of the war were for protection of oppressed minorities and retaliation against the death of nationalists in religious riots. Philip Warner believes that the main cause of the war was that Britain and Russia were both large countries and only one of them would be able to prevail. At the time, Britain was a country that stretched all the way to India and they couldn't afford to have line of communication through the Middle East cut. Russia spanned an entire eight million square miles. "However, the looseness and backwardness of their territories did not stop the Russians from wishing to extend their influence." (Warner 5). Albert Seaton believes that the Tsar Nicholas did not want war, but it was part of his political strategy to bring Europe to the brink of hostilities in order to intimidate those who opposed him. "He would undoubtedly have taken even greater risks if only France and Turkey had been involved, but he was worried by the close interest taken by the British in the Middle East, for the islanders were already openly assessing the armed strengths there and did not conceal their low opinion of the value of the Black Sea Fleet." (Seaton 42). Philip Warner believes that the battle of the Alma occurred because Sebastopol, Russia's heavily fortified base, had no proper defences and it was decided that the part of the Russian army would be sent to completely stop or at least slow down the Allied Army at Alma. The Russians and the Allies both set up very planned out and strategic formations, but they just ended up attacking each other head on. For some reason, Menschikov, the commander of the Russian army, didn't bring in his reserves.

History of Babylonia Essay

Babylon is Akkadian â€Å"babilani† which means â€Å"the Gate of God(s)† and it became the capital of the land of Babylonia. The etymology of the name Babel in the Bible means â€Å"confused† (Gen 11:9) and throughout the Bible, Babylon was a symbol of the confusion caused by godlessness. The name Babylon is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Babel. The Early Growth of Babylon There is evidence that man has lived in this area of Mesopotamia since the beginning of civilization. The first records indicate that Babylon was established as a city around the 23rd century BC. Before this it was a provincial capital ruled by the kings of the city of Ur. Then came the migration of the Amorites. Quick Overview of Babylonian History Babylonia (pronounced babilahnia) was an ancient empire that existed in the Near East in southern Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. Throughout much of their history their main rival for supremacy were their neighbors, the Assyrians. It was the Babylonians, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed Jerusalem, the capital of the Kingdom of Judah, and carried God’s covenant people into captivity in 587 BC. The Bible reveals much about the Babylonians all the way back from the time of Hammurapi (2000 BC) to the fall of Babylon (about 500 BC). Throughout the Old Testament there are references to the Babylonians, their people, culture, religion, military power, etc. Babylonia was a long, narrow country about 40 miles wide at its widest point and having an area of about 8,000 square miles. It was bordered on the north by Assyria, on the east by Elam, on the south and west by the Arabian desert, and on the southeast by the Persian Gulf. The earliest known inhabitants of Mesopotamia were the Sumerians, whom the Bible refers to as the people of the â€Å"land of Shinar† (Gen 10:10). Sargon, from one of the Sumerian cities, united the people of Babylonia under his rule about 2300 B.C. Many scholars believe that Sargon might have been the  same person as Nimrod (Gen 10:8). Artists Depiction of the Ziggurat at Ur Around 2000 BC Hammurapi emerged as the ruler of Babylonia. He expanded the borders of the Empire and organized its laws into a written system, also known as the Code of Hammurapi. About this time Abraham left Ur, an ancient city located in lower Babylon, and moved to Haran, a city in the north. Later, Abraham left Haran and migrated into the land of Canaan under God’s promise that he would become the father of a great nation (Gen 12). Alongside of Babylonia there must also be a mention of Assyria, which bordered Babylonia on the north. Assyria’s development was often intertwined with the course of Babylonian history. About 1270 BC, the Assyrians overpowered Babylonia. For the next 700 years, Babylonia was a lesser power as the Assyrians dominated the ancient world. Around 626 BC, Babylonian independence was finally won from Assyria by a leader named Nabopolassar. Under his leadership, Babylonia again became the dominant imperial power in the Near East and thus entered into her â€Å"golden age.† In 605 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II, the son of Nabopolassar, became ruler and reigned for 44 years. Under him the Babylonian Empire reached its greatest strength. Using the treasures which he took from other nations, Nebuchadnezzar built Babylon, the capital city of Babylonia, into one of the leading cities of the world. The famous hanging gardens of Babylon were known to the Greeks as one of the seven wonders of the world. As previously mentioned, in 587 BC, the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and carried the leading citizens of the Kingdom of Judah as prisoners to Babylon. The Hebrew prophet Jeremiah had foretold that the Jews would be free to return home to Jerusalem after 70 years. The Lord had encouraged His people through Ezekiel and Daniel who were also captives in Babylon. During this 70 year period of captivity, the Persians conquered Babylonia, and the Babylonians passed from the scene as a world power. Throughout the long period of Babylonia history, the Babylonians achieved a  high level of civilization that made an impact on the whole known world. Sumerian culture was its basis, which later Babylonians regarded as traditional. In the area of religion, the Sumerians already had a system of gods, each with a main temple in each city. The chief gods were Anu, god of heaven; Enlil, god of the air; and Enki or Ea, god of the sea. Others were Shamash, the sungod; Sin, the moon-god; Ishtar, goddess of love and war; and Adad, the storm-god. The Amorites promoted the god Marduk at the city of Babylon, so that he became the chief god of the Babylonian religion, starting around 1100 BC. Babylonian religion was temple-centered, with elaborate festivals and many different types of priests, especially the exorcist and the diviner, who mainly were trained to drive away evil spirits. Babylonian literature was mainly dominated by mythology and legends. Among these was a creation myth written to glorify their god Marduk. According to this myth, Marduk created heaven and earth from the corpse of the goddess Tiamat. Another work was the Gilgamesh Epic, a flood story written about 2000 BC. Scientific literature of the Babylonians included treatises on astronomy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, botany, and nature. One of the main aspects of Babylonian culture was a codified system of law. Hammurapi’s famous code was the successor of earlier collections of laws going back to about 2050 BC. The Babylonians used art for the national celebration of great events and glorification of the gods. It was marked by stylized and symbolic representations, but it expressed realism and spontaneity in the depiction of animals. The Old Testament contains many references to Babylonia. Gen 10:10 mentions four Babylonian cities, Babel (Babylon), Erech (Uruk), Accad (Agade) and Calneh. These, along with Assyria, were ruled by Nimrod. Ancient Babylonia – Monarchy The Babylonian political structure was a monarchy. The king ruled through a number of officials who were directly under and responsible to him but he could intervene personally at any level of government and administration. Thus Hammurapi (1792-1750 BC) took a direct hand in dealing with property claims in Larsa after he had captured that city-state. The monarchy  was hereditary and maleprimogeniture seems to have been the guiding principle. Babylonian historians designated a continuous line of kings a â€Å"dynasty†. The king was an absolute monarch and in the very early period there were a few checks to his authority in that he had to respect custom and tradition, private property, the sensibilities of the nobles, religion and divination. The king was the ultimate authority in all areas except religion where he was subject to the dictates of the chief god as represented by his chief priest. Thus in the New Year’s festival the king’s role included being slapped in the face by the chief priest and pulled by the ears as a sign of his subservience to the god. Ancient Babylonia – Communication, Roads and Scribes Efficient administration of the country depended upon good communications through a system of roads and relay stations for messengers. Written communications passed back and forth in great number and required a large body of trained scribes. Most people, including the king and his officials, were illiterate so that they were heavily dependent upon the scribes both to write and interpret their commands and reports in an appropriate manner. Many of these letters have been discovered in modern times and they provide a fascinating glimpse of the real events and human relationships of the day, in contrast to the official versions found in royal inscriptions. Ancient Babylonia – Nebuchadnezzar II Nebuchadnezzar II marched back to Babylon and was crowned king, which inaugurated one of the most powerful periods in Babylonian history. Nebuchadnezzar continued his brilliant campaigns focusing his military maneuvers on the west, which he effectively brought under his control. It was the kingdom of Judah who had called upon Egypt to assist them against the Babylonians. King Nebuchadnezzar continued his attacks and on his second conquest the conquered Jerusalem in 586 BC taking the survivors as prisoners back to Babylon. This was known in Jewish history has â€Å"the Babylonian captivity†and â€Å"the exile†. After he destroyed Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar focused his attacks upon Egypt and he conquered it in 568 BC though there  has been no detailed account of this invasion ever discovered, it remains a tremendous success for the king of Babylon and the first time any Chaldean king had ever conquered Egypt. After Nebuchadnezzar’s death his successors remained obscure untilNabonidus (555-539 BC), the last of the dynasty, ascended the throne. According to history Nabonidus, for some reason, lived throughout 10 of the 17 years that he ruled, at an Arab desert oasis called Tema, which was a vast distance from Babylon. In Babylon he left his son Belshazzar, to rule on his behalf. Nabonidus and his mother were from Harran and claimed to have been a loyal subject to the last of the Assyrian kings. Both he and his mother were zealous worshipers of the moon-god Sin, the tutelary deity of Harran, but when Nabonidus tried to promote this cult in Babylonia, the native priests, especially those who followed Marduk, became enraged. This religious controversy split Babylonia in two. Some of this literary propaganda of the time has been recovered. Babylonian culture flourished during the pax Assyriaca of the 7th century BC and again under the Chaldean dynasty of the sixth century BC. Their god Nabu, son of Marduk and god of writing and learning became very popular throughout that period. The practice of astrology permeated the Babylonian society to the point that there were nightly watches by the astrologers throughout the kingdom. Archeologists have recently recovered massive detailed records of the movements of heavenly bodies. Literature was copied and studied and many new compositions were created. In art and architecture the most impressive remains that have been unearthed by archeologists are in Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon. The city apparently had not changed much when the Greek historianHerodotus wrote about it less than a century later and called its Hanging Gardens one of the 7 wonders of the world. In 539 BC Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon. Ancient Babylonia – Houses and Farms Around the temple were clusters of houses made of sun-dried brickand inhabited by farmers and artisans. The populations of the Babylonian cities cannot be estimated with any reasonable degree of accuracy, because the  authorities, so far as extant documents reveal, took no census. The number of inhabitants of a city probably ranged from 10,000 to 50,000. The city streets were narrow, winding, and quite irregular, with high, windowless walls of houses on both sides. The streets were unpaved and undrained. The average house was a small, one-story, mud-brick structure, consisting of several rooms grouped around a court. The house of a well-to-do Babylonian, on the other hand, was probably a two-story brick dwelling of about a dozen rooms and was plastered and whitewashed both inside and out. The ground floor consisted of a reception room, kitchen, lavatory, servants’ quarters, and, sometimes, even a private chapel. Furnitureconsisted of low tables, high-backed chairs, and beds with wooden frames. Household vessels were made of clay, stone, copper, and bronze, and baskets and chests of reed and wood. Floors and walls were adorned with reed mats, skin rugs, and woolen hangings. Below the house was often located a mausoleum in which the family dead were buried. The Babylonians believed that the souls of the dead traveled to the nether world, and that, at least to some extent, life continued there as on earth. For this reason, pots, tools, weapons, and jewels were buried with the dead. Agriculture formed the economic base of Babylonian civilization with production of barley, wheat, fruits, vegetables, with cattle and sheep predominating. The main crop in the time of the ancient Babylonians was barley. The farmer would sow his seed with a tool known as a â€Å"seeder plough† The plough would create a furrow into which a seed would be dropped using a funnel. A man would have to walk beside the seeder plough and drop the seeds in at regular intervals. This would mean that all the seeds would be at exactly the correct depth. It would have taken considerable skill to achieve tasks such as irrigationand the winnowing. If the farmer got the irrigation wrong he could flood the field or let it get too dry to allow the plants to grow. Similarly if the farmer did the winnowing in too strong a wind the grain would also blow away but if he did in too weak a wind there would be chaff and dirt still mixed in. The farmer would have probably followed his father in his trade and would have been taught by him. The farmer would almost certainly have been â€Å"apprenticed† by his father. Ancient Babylonia – Social Hierarchy There were several levels in the social hierarchy with the king at the top and the slaves at the bottom. In between, in descending order, were the nobles, the free citizens and those in military and civil service. The class structure was generally rigid although some mobility from one level to another was possible. The debt slave had the possibility of paying his debts and regaining his freedom but the only hope for the foreign captive was escape or death. Thus in Babylonian society there were mainly three classes in society, theawilu, a free person of the upper class; the wardu, or slave; and themushkenu, a free person of low estate, who ranked legally between the awilu and the wardu. Most slaves were prisoners of war, but some were recruited from the Babylonian citizenry as well. For example, free persons might be reduced to slavery as punishment for certain offenses; parents could sell their children as slaves in time of need; or a man might even turn over his entire family to creditors in payment of a debt, but for no longer than three years. Ancient Babylonia – Schools For the most part the only education that a young Babylonian might have received would have been of a scribal type. Those who were sent to school to train as a scribe had to be children of wealthy or influential parents. Boys were admitted and possibly girls as well. There is no doubt that rich women often had a lot of freedom and influence. By the time of Hammurapi (1792-60) the language of Sumerian had been replaced by Akkadian as the commonly spoken language in Babylonia but Sumerian was  still used for nearly all religious texts. It was therefore necessary to train students, not only in the script, cuneiform, but in the language as well. The students’ education would begin when he was eight or nine years old. Each day he would get up at sunrise and go to school, which was commonly known as the tablet house. At the tablet house there would be a man like a schoolmaster. His title literally meant â€Å"the Expert.† There would be a number of other teachers who would each specialize in a different aspects of Sumerian and its writing. To keep order some of the senior students would be appointed as a helper. A student’s work would consist of copying tablets using a slab of wet clay. Also he would learn various texts by heart. If he successfully passed an examination the student became a scribe. Ancient Babylonia – Astronomy and the Calendar The observations of the astrologers, which were meticulously recorded on a nightly basis over many centuries, led to accurate predictions of various astronomical phenomena and the correct calculation of the solar and lunar year. The Babylonian calendar was based upon the lunar year but, thanks to the astrologer’s knowledge, could be reconciled with the solar year by means of intercalary months. We owe much of our calendar system to the Babylonians. They were probably the first people after the Sumerians to have a calendar. This calendar was very important because without it agriculture could not be planned properly. There were twelve lunar months in the year but as the months were shorter than our months often an extra month would have to be added. This was called the second Elul. Each week was divided into seven days. The day was divided into six parts each of two hours duration and containing thirty parts. The Babylonians measured time with a water or sun clock. One can see from this that the Babylonian calendar has markedsimilarities with our own: for instance the twelve months in the year and seven days in a week. Ancient Babylonia – Medicine Medicine was practiced by two kinds of experts: the physician(asu), and the exorcist (dsipu), and the talents of either or both might be demanded at the sick bed. There was a whole set of diagnostic texts in which a multitude of possible symptoms was listed and the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment given. Surgery was known and even delicate operations on the eye were performed. The Babylonians had a superb knowledge of human and animal anatomy and physiology and were aware, for example, of the circulation of the blood and the pulse. Ancient Babylonia – Cuneiform The script of the Sumerians and all the other inhabitants of Mesopotamia employed to write their language, up to the first century BC was cuneiform. The name cuneiform comes from theLatin word â€Å"cuneus†, meaning wedge. According to Babylonian beliefs Nabu, the god of scribal arts, who was also the city god of Borsippa, gave cuneiform to them. When the Akkadians, Semite invaders from the desert, adopted the Sumerian civilization and part of the Sumerian Territory they also adopted cuneiform. They adapted the script to fit their own. The next wave of Semite invaders, the Amorites, did likewise, but they continued to speak the Akkadian tongue. Thus we find Hammurapi (1792-1760 BC) who was an Amorite, speaking Akkadian and writing cuneiform. Since the time of Hammurapi, successive Mesopotamian empires controlled huge empires in the Near East. Because of this cuneiform, Akkadian became the lingua franca of the Near East, as Latin was of Medieval Europe. This of course ended when Mesopotamian civilization declined so that cuneiform was no longer being used by about the first century BC. When the Sumerians first brought cuneiform into being it was nothing like the script that it was to become. It was an ideogramatical script (a symbol represented by a word). For example a picture of sheep would mean sheep. When the Sumerians came into contact with the Akkadians they needed to adapt their script to fit. This was necessary even to write Akkadian names. Obviously it was far more important for the Akkadians because they needed to write their language in it. Cuneiform then underwent a transformation. It became a syllogramatical script where each symbol represented a sound.  Therefore the symbol for a word such as ‘dig’, if we took an English equivalent would be correctly used in the second syllable of ‘indignant’. This transformation enabled cuneiform to be used with other languages. As cuneiform changed from an ideogramatical to a syllogramatical scriptits symbols were simplified. The original pictograms were complicated and hard to write on clay tablets. The symbols developed, losing many of their lines and the remaining lines were wedge shaped and straight. Cuneiform was originally written with a reed or stick stylus but this was quickly developed into a precision tool. We have derived virtually all our knowledge of the Babylonians from texts written in cuneiform on clay tablets. From these tablets we have been able to learn their law, business, administration, religion and all other aspects of Babylonian civilization. Without these texts we would know little about the Babylonians. http://www.bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaBabylonia00000023.htm HISTORY OF THE HITTITES The first Indo-European empire: 17th century BC A group of tribes, speaking Indo-European languages and collectively known as the Hittites, establish themselves as the dominant power in Anatolia. Their capital is at Bogazkoy, a dramatically fortified city on a steep slope among ravines; its walls and towers enclose no fewer than five great temples. The priest-king who makes this place his capital in the 17th century BC is Hattusilis I. He has ambitions for his people. Moving south and east with his army, he reaches the Mediterranean and continues into northern Syria. Eager to give his empire full credentials, Hattusilis brings back from Syria a team of scribes, expert in cuneiform. They adapt the cuneiform script to a new purpose, the recording of an Indo-European language, and they lay the foundation for an important state archive at Bogazkoy. When the clay tablets of this archive are discovered, in the 20th century, they provide the basis for our knowledge of the Hittites. The magic of iron: from 1500 BC The Hittites are the first people to work iron, in Anatolia from about 1500 BC. In its simple form iron is less hard than bronze, and therefore of less use as a weapon, but it seems to have had an immediate appeal – perhaps as the latest achievement of technology (with the mysterious quality of being changeable, through heating and hammering), or from a certain intrinsic magic (it is the metal in meteorites, which fall from the sky). Quite how much value is attached to iron can be judged from a famous letter of about 1250 BC, written by a Hittite king to accompany an iron dagger-blade which he is sending to a fellow monarch The furthest extent of the empire: 16th – 12th century BC In about 1600 the Hittites reach and destroy Babylon, before retreating again to their Anatolian heartland. In the 14th century they march again to establish an empire which reaches into northern Syria, east of the Euphrates, and extends down the Mediterranean coast to confront the Egyptians. A hard-fought but inconclusive engagement at Kadesh in 1275 stablizes the frontier between the two power blocs. It is followed some years later by a treaty and the marriage of the daughter of the Hittite king (Hattusilis III) to the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II.   In the 12th century the Hittite empire suddenly collapses – overwhelmed, it is thought, by the onrush of the Sea Peoples. These terrifying intruders are described in Egyptian chronicles as raging down the coast to threaten the frontiers of Egypt in about 1218 and again in 1182 BC http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ab66#ixzz2HIAKxOZL The Hittites were an Ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established a kingdom centered at Hattusa in on the central Anatolian plateau in the 18th century BC. The HittiteEmpire reached its height around 1285 BC,  encompassing a large part of Anatolia, north-westernSyria about as far south as the mouth of the Litani River, and eastward into upper Mesopotamia. After ca. 1180 BC, the empire d isintegrated into several independent â€Å"Neo-Hittite† city-states, some surviving until as late as the 8th century BC. The term â€Å"Hittites† was taken from the King James translation of the Hebrew Bible, translating ×â€"× ªÃ—â„¢ HTY, or ב×  Ã—â„¢-×â€"× ª BNY-HT â€Å"Children of Heth† (Heth is a son of Canaan). The archaeologists who discovered the Anatolian Hittites in the 19th century initially identified them with these Biblical Hittites. Today the identification of the Biblical peoples with either the Hattusa-based empire or the Neo-Hittite kingdoms is a matter of dispute. The Hittite kingdom was commonly called the Land of Hatti by the Hittites themselves. The fullest expression is â€Å"The Land of the City of Hattusa.† This description could be applied to either the entire empire, or more narrowly just to the core territory, depending on context. The word â€Å"Hatti† is actually an Akkadogram, rather than Hittite; it is never declined according to Hittite grammatical rules. Despite the use of â€Å"Hatti†, the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language called Hattic. The Hittites themselves referred to their language as Nesili (or in one case, Kanesili), an adverbial form meaning â€Å"in the manner of (Ka)nesa†, presumably reflecting a high concentration of Hittite speakers in the ancient city of Kanesh (modern Kà ¼ltepe, Turkey). Many modern city names in Turkey are first recorded under their Hittite names, such as Sinop and Adana, reflecting the contiguity of modernAnatolia with its ancient past. Although belonging to the Bronze Age, the Hittites were forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of Iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century BC, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the demand for their iron goods. Recent excavations, however, have discovered evidence of iron tool production dating back at least as far as the 20th century BC. Hittite weapons were made from Bronzethough; iron was so rare and precious

Essay on the Stranger Essay

In the novel the Stranger by Albert Camus, the protagonist Meursault is characterized as emotionless, uncaring, and indifferent, though he is actually an understanding, insightful man who is pleased with a simple, modest life. His lack of emotion towards the superfluous and superficial, along with his lack of judgment for other people’s choices do not make him indifferent; they in fact show how he demonstrates Albert Camus’ philosophy of Absurdism. It is through the characterization of Meursault that the greater theme of Absurdism and the absurdity of life are conveyed. Meursault is often seen as cold and impassive towards others. He is actually characterized in this detached way to personify and embody Camus’ philosophy, and his rejection of the established and predictable. One day when Meursault is spending the day with Marie, she asks him if he would marry her and he says â€Å"it didn’t make any difference† and that they â€Å"could if she wanted to† (41). Most view marriage as an important occasion with many consequences and a lifetime commitment. Meursault’s reaction to Marie’s question is honest and straight forward, and his nonchalance serves to weaken the importance of institutionalized principles. Later, Marie wonders to herself if she loves him, and Meursault says that â€Å"there is no way [he] could know that† (42), as it is not possible for Meursault to know what others feel. This implies that a person’s emotions are determined by the individual, and demonstrates the Absurdist thought that no two people can have the exact same emotions and beliefs, and therefore there can be no shared meaning concerning an emotion. When speaking with his lawyer, Meursault is asked how he felt about his mother’s death, and he says that he â€Å"would rather Maman hadn’t died† (65), which shocks his lawyer. Meursault could be perceived as cold and indifferent for not expressing more emotion towards his mother’s death, but he is simply expressing the absurdist belief that one can have many different emotions and that having a mold or standard for a way a person should feel during a specific situation is absurd. Meursault is simply conveying that emotions he felt for his mother such as love are too intangible to define. Camus portrays Meursault as being very non-judgmental and blase towards other characters actions. This is not because Meursault is emotionless or apathetic, but because it conveys Camus’ belief in personal meaning instead of shared meaning imposed by society. Raymond asks Meursault if â€Å"he’d mind writing him a letter right then†¦ [And he] said no† (32), even though the letter would eventually hurt Raymond’s ex girlfriend. Meursault agrees, not because he is rude or uncaring, but because he is just doing his friend a favor, and because he doesn’t judge others based on a standard set of morals. Before Meursault is scheduled to be executed, the Chaplain attempts for the second time to convince Meursault to embrace Christianity like others before him so that he may be saved. Meursault â€Å"acknowledg[es] that that was their right† (117), but does not agree because he is acting in the Absurdist mindset that judging others based on your own principles is wrong. Meursault goes on to try to convince the Chaplain that a person’s value is not measured by society, for one person could see him as very bad, where as another views him as very good. Meursault’s nature and ability to understand that it is up to the individual to build their own beliefs and values demonstrates the Absurdist belief that every person has the right to assign personal meaning to a part of their life, rather than take from the meaning imposed on their life by society. Camus defines Absurdism as â€Å"the confrontation between man’s desire for significance, meaning and clarity on the one hand – and the silent, cold universe on the other†. Meursault, who is capable of embracing the universe’s silence, especially when facing his own death is what makes him the Absurd hero, and ultimately humanize the Absurd philosophy. Camus uses the character of Meursault to convey the message that it is up to the individual to assign meaning to their life through embracing reality, and to avoid becoming trapped by societal ideals and the â€Å"shared meaning† imposed by humanity. One should not allow fear to limit them.

Reparations Justified essays

Reparations Justified essays Reparations Justified The question of Reparations, has been the subject of many arguments, and will continue to be. Now, throughout history, man has self-defined himself as a destroyer of lives, of cities, and to be quite frank, a destroyer of a way of life. In the wake of such destruction, there can only be a flicker of hope, through mans flipside capacity of creation, organization and his ability to manipulate technology for his benefit. Many instances of these stages have been brought to the fore-front of these debates of reparation. Of the most prominent ones, we can administer only one remedy; that is RECOMPESATION or REPARATION. Not the admittance of responsibility, or the pointing of fingers, but a rather, a general idea of sympathy, reconciliation, empathy, and regret. All in one concerted effort to assist the fallen, or the ancestors of the fallen who are yet to arise from their fallen position. Let us now justify our means of stance on reparations to anyone affected directly or indirectly by wrongful human doing. In the case of Slavery in America, the U.S. government, not long dead Southern planters, bears the blame for slavery. Its support of slavery was seen by the letter and the spirit of its law. This is evidenced in the Constitution in article one. This designated a black slave as three-fifths of a person for tax and political representation purposes. It protected and nourished it in article four by mandating that all escaped slaves found anywhere in the nation be returned to their masters if caught alive. Many major institutions profited from slavery. The California state legislature passed a bill requiring insurance companies to disclose whether they wrote policies insuring slaves. Insurance companies made profits insuring slaves ...

The eNotes Blog Resumes The Struggle isReal

Resumes The Struggle isReal How is it that as students no one ever really teaches us to write resumes? There are so few opportunities to hone this skill as a young adult or adolescent. I know the only reason I’ve been able to practice this skill is because my dad has always been very pro-active about equipping me with the career-oriented skills needed to be successful. Now that I’m a college student living two states away, getting his advice has become a little more tricky, so naturally I turned to the only place I knew I could get reliable and up to date information quickly, the web. With so many websites and apps available to advise people on career oriented techniques and information, it took no time at all to identify what today’s evolving economy calls for in terms of resumes. The days of resumes with stiff, formal language and generic formatting are long gone. Future employers want to know you, not just your education and experience. Today’s resumes are all about showcasing your talents and skills and demonstrating why you’ll be advantageous to the company in question. Here are five tips on how best to market yourself through your resume 1. Use active language when describing your past experience or positions. Be as descriptive as possible. Were you a cashier at a local store? Talk about the experience you gained in customer service and human resources. Don’t simply say, â€Å"assisted customers by ringing them up.† So dull. Instead say, â€Å"formed close connections with regular customers, enriching their experience at the store and overall contributing to a strong company identity by emphasizing great customer service.† This language can help a future employer see that you gained legitimate experience through this position. 2. Emphasize your relevant coursework and your outside-of-the-classroom experience. This is something that is so frequently overlooked when creating a resume. As a college or high school student you are bound to have encountered class projects that demand real world career skills. My freshman year of college I took an entry level political science class that required the class to work on all aspects of an event and participate in all areas of citizenship. I went door-to-door with fliers, gathered signatures, worked in coalition with a local non-profit, advertised an event, and successfully executed a community service event with the help of my class. All of these skills are marketable and valuable. If you’ve ever had a class with this sort of real world application, use it to your advantage. Future employers will be impressed that you’ve taken advantage of the educational experiences you’ve had. 3. Customize, customize, customize! There’s nothing worse than submitting a catchall resume with nothing tailored to the position you’re applying for. Only include what is relevant to the job. Look at the job description or title and then look at your composite list of experiences and pick and choose what you think they’ll want to see. You may also choose to leave out certain pieces of a job summary in order to make it more relevant to the position. My suggestion is to make one giant resume with all of your work experience, education, extracurriculars, and skills and then pick and choose and copy/paste to formulate the perfect resume for the specific position. A great tool for this is the Levo Resume app, it streamlines the resume creation process in an aesthetically pleasing way. 4. Tell a story. Your resume should read like a narrative, i.e, I began here, got this experience, moved onto here, got that experience, etc. By the time the employer is done reading this they should be able to have a comprehensive view of you, and the direction you’re going. There’s really no trick to this, and it may seem pretty self explanatory, but by visualizing your resume as a story you may be able to have greater insight into the way you should physically format your information. Start with your most recent experience and work backwards. It should seem like a timeline on Facebook. You’re the main character and all of your experience is helping to develop you. A quick tip to jumpstart this, sit down and try to write two concise sentences that summarize your resume. Start with who you are, what experience you have, and the direction you wish to go. This will create a concise vision for you, and once you’ve worked to narrow down all you’ve done to two sentences , only the truly pertinent stuff will remain. 5.   Be concise. Try not to go over a page in length. This is tried and true when it comes to resumes. Recruiters and employers are frequently flooded with resumes and applications and would rather not be forced to flip the page. Great, you have a lot of experience, but do they really need to read about every last job you have had? The answer is no. As I’ve mentioned in some of the sections above, they really just want to see what is most applicable to the position they’re hiring for. I recognize that not everyone will have a lot of job experience in the specific field they’re looking for work in, but look for other ways to market yourself, perhaps through your skills and hobbies. Finally, do the 10 second scan test; do you have buzzwords for the position’s description? Does your expertise and experience give a concise perspective on what you can offer? This information should be so obvious on your resume that any person could get it in 10 seconds. Need more help with creating an eye-catching resume or cover letter? has you covered. Check out these helpful QA from our experts! Whats the difference between a cover letter and a resume? What do I need to do to draft a cover letter and resume? How do I write  a good cover letter for a job application? Plus more writing help available in Essay Lab. Ask us a question for free through our iOS app today!

Enter to win a pass to the Nonfiction Writers Online Conference or membership in the Nonfiction Authors Association

Enter to win a pass to the Nonfiction Writers Online Conference or membership in the Nonfiction Authors Association Contest Alert! Enter to win a pass to the Nonfiction Writers Online Conference or membership in the Nonfiction Authors Association NOTE: As of April 4, the winners have been chosen! BIG CONGRATS to Lula Lucy at Lulalucy.com for winning a Gold access pass to the Nonfiction Writers Conference, and KUDOS to Carolyn Howard Johnson for winning the Authority Membership in the NF Authors Association for a full year!!!! And thanks for all who entered. Wow well over   200 entries!   DOUBLE NOTE: The conference is May 2-4, and I assume some of you are still interested in attending. If so, use this link to sign up and mention FUNDSFORWRITERS35. Youll get 35% off the sign up fee.   FundsforWriters has teamed up with the Nonfiction Writers Conference and Nonfiction Authors Association to host an EASY contest. Two winners will be selected at random to receive one of two great prizes: A Gold access pass to the Nonfiction Writers Conference, happening May 2-4, 2018 (this event is virtual- no travel required!). Value: $225 Authority membership in the Nonfiction Authors Association for a full year! Value: $190 How to Enter: This is a blog comment contest so all you need to do to enter is post a comment below that answers this question: What are your top three writing goals this year? That’s right, simply answer the above question in the comment area below. Feel free to include your book title if applicable and a link to your website. Remember to include your email address when you register your comment so that we can contact you if you win! This contest will run from March 16 to April 1, 2018. (Winners announced April 3, 2018.) About the Prizes One winner will receive a Gold Access pass to the 8th annual Nonfiction Writers Conference, happening May 2-4, 2018 and featuring opening keynote speaker Gretchen Rubin, New York Times bestselling author of The Happiness Project, Better Than Before, and The Four Tendencies. Event speakers will cover how to write, publish, promote and profit with a book! NFWC is completely virtual- all sessions are delivered via phone or Skype. Your Gold pass includes all event recordings, an invitation to our attendees-only Facebook group, and access to our Ask-a-Pro sessions- complimentary 15-minute consulting sessions with industry experts, delivered via phone or Skype. Learn more about NFWC: http://NonfictionWritersConference.com/register-nfwc-2018/ One winner will also receive a full year of Authority membership in the Nonfiction Authors Association, a vibrant community for writers. Membership includes access to recordings from weekly teleseminars with industry experts, marketing â€Å"homework† sent via email each week, exclusive templates, checklists and other content, discounts off our year-round Nonfiction Book Awards and Nonfiction Writers Conference, and discounts with our partners including IngramSpark, Office Depot and more. Learn more about NFAA:  https://NonfictionAuthorsAssociation.com Additional Contest Guidelines Open to legal residents of the United States, age 18 or older. No purchase necessary, void where prohibited. The Sweepstakes is governed Two winners will be chosen at random to receive the prizes listed above. The specifics of the prize shall be solely determined Enter Below to Win! Post your comment What are your top three writing goals this year? Thanks for joining us- and feel free to share this contest with your writer friends!  Ã‚   C. Hope Clark, Editor, FundsforWriters.com

Hypervisor Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hypervisor - Term Paper Example The server virtualization also allows the organizations to run different software applications on diverse operating system to fully utilize system resources of a single physical machine. The operating system can run in isolation and / or side by side on the same physical machine. Each virtual machine (operating system) has its own allocated virtual hardware (e.g. Random Access Memory, Central Processing Unit, NIC, etc.) to load one operating system along with software applications. It is vital to state that the operating system uses the allocated virtual hardware resources, consistently and usually regardless of the actual physical hardware components (Bento, 2012). Advantages of Hypervisor Several advantages can be availed by an organization utilizing the technology of server virtualization. The server virtualization facilitates the organizations to combine the workloads of the underutilized server machines onto a smaller number of fully utilized machines. Keeping in view the fact o f utilizing comparatively less number of servers for the multiple operating systems and software applications to manage the workload, it can be stated that the server virtualization can be cost effective for the organizations. ... The utilization of hypervisor in the hardware infrastructure of an enterprise provides features of securely splitting each virtual machine / operating system and supports the legacy software systems as well as new software applications on the same server (Shavit, 2008). Disadvantages of Hypervisor for an Organization For every advantage there exist one or several disadvantages, therefore, the hypervisor has disadvantages as well. Comparatively, one of the main disadvantages of utilizing the native hypervisor is that the hypervisor reduces the performance of the operating system as well as the installed applications run slowly. While using the host hypervisor limits the enterprise to install the operating systems as per the limitations of the host operating system. The disadvantages of utilizing hypervisor in the enterprises include but are not limited to the requirements of servers with high specifications (i-e Randon Acess Memory, Central Processing Unit etc.), it requires additiona l hardware components and difficult to use console interface. The type two (2) or host hypervisors lead to the loss of centralized management, it has lower density and therefore, it becomes difficult to install many virtual machines of the first type. The organizations have to suffer with less security while utilizing the host hypervisors. It is pertinent to mention here that there are few operating systems cannot be installed simultaneously utilizing the hypervisors. The hypervisor technology only supports the Intel operating systems, whereas, the type 1 or native hypervisor does not support Solaris SPARC, AIX, HPUX, and the high-End UNIX systems. Introduction to

Renting a House & Buying a House Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Renting a House & Buying a House - Essay Example A house on rent would be the best option for a college going student. There are many college going students who do not live in campus. So for them the best options are either they take up PG in their nearest locality or rent a complete house to enjoy the benefits which come along with living in a house. The student community is not a permanent community to live in a house. For them the best option always is to rent a house for a temporary period and then move out as soon as the course gets over. Buying the house is any day a better option as at that time the person is the owner of his own property. However, there are families who are recently married and decide to move out of their parent’s house in search of a private home. For them, it rather depends on more than one factor whether or not to buy a house or to rent a house. The financial condition plays a huge role in determining what option to choose. So if there is a family who has the income to purchase a house then they s hould consider buying the property for a more lasting future and a stable life. There is no denying that owning a house is a much more stable option for families than renting a house. The feel good factor of owning the house is a much better feeling than being a tenant in someone else’s property. ... The family which is not in a position to buy a house may take a loan to own a house, and keep paying monthly instalments in return of the loan. A stable life only comes with a stable house and a stable locality. This is imperative for a long and continuous life which includes a strong base with respect to the place the family is living in. When the family has been able to garner enough money and resources, then comes the question of which house to buy and where to buy. This is the most important question which needs to be answered with respect to the purchase of the house. There are often times when the families buy the house when they are expanding in size. This could be due to a baby arriving in the family. Or otherwise, there are also times when the families decide to buy the house due to a promotion, change of a job where the members of the family start earning more. Financial conditions are the most important condition which is kept in mind before the purchase is made. This is d one to highlight the significance of the role money plays in determining the placed of living for the families. In all such circumstances buying the house is the best option overall. The arrival of a new born is a significant approach towards the purchase of a new house. It is important to note that families tend to find new places to live for their new born as they think that the baby deserves the best environment to grow and excel in life, which means that the got to shift off their present location and find a more beautiful location to raise their new born. Apart from this, a new job is also a major criteria for families to buy a house. As a first time buyer of the house, it is important to chalk out the needs and objectives before moving into the

Movie Theater General Manager Assessment Assignment

Movie Theater General Manager Assessment - Assignment Example Staffing and customer service are key components that the movie general manager will be required to undertake as appropriate. Accountability is key in ensuring that the manager delivers on the job. The position of a theatre manager is critical to the success of the organization to the extent that if the individual employed for the job is not up to the task then the objectives and goals cannot be met as appropriate. To this end, a careful assessment of the various tasks is scrutinized and matched with the relevant qualifications. While recruiting, it is important that the individual understands the tasks and the relevant procedures and processes needed to ensure success. The theatre manager will require attending a training session that will last for a period of 31 days. At the end of the training session, the management will conduct a training assessment test to determine the effectiveness of the process. Compensation will be determined based on the level of competence and the inherent job factors directly related to the job offered. Performance assessment is the testing mode that is to be employed in determining if the individual recruited can perform the tasks as appropriate. The tests will be conducted by the directors and members of the executive. Key areas of testing will include skills, knowledge and level of commitment to the job offered. Some of the questions to be asked include The questions will determine if the individuals recruited are the right ones for the job. The test questions will be analyzed and evaluated by the executives and the concerned people recruiting for the job. The selection process will begin immediately after the applications. The idea is to expedite the process by looking at every application and determining if they correspond with the needed requirements. The selection process being done immediately after application will give the organization time to

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 25

Leadership - Essay Example There must be procedures and policies that are vital in managing a program and therefore failure to successfully communicate these may interfere with success of the project. Workers need to understand basic information required in doing their jobs and therefore effective communication is really weighty in getting the job done. According to West (2012), there are always limited resources and time constraints that ought to be completed. Failure to accomplish project on time may indicate overall project failure and therefore all the resources both human and materials should be allocated in the most efficient way. Improper utilization of resources may break the smooth running of the project and eventually lead to terrible program failure. Also, resources and time play a major role in the estimation of the project. These two elements are very expensive and are the reason behind program budgeting and estimations. Failure to control resources and time may heighten the cost of the project. Indeed, resources and time are very important aspects of any project and are vital in determining long term health of the project. Managers are required to manage their conflicts democratically with a clear distinction between substantive and personal issues. In managing interpersonal conflicts, leaders need to be prepared with information that is more detailed and multiple alternatives to enhance the quality of their debate. Availability of more data, which are objective based, compel managers to focus on issues rather than personal matters or useless arguments rooted in ignorance. Inadequate information makes management rely mostly on guesses and baseless assumptions that do not help the program (West, 2012). Reliance on facts reduces involvement on personal issues and eventually interpersonal conflicts. In addition, administrators need to use humor and share a common goal in debates while maintaining a balanced power structure. Furthermore,

Project Planning and Project Managment Research Paper

Project Planning and Project Managment - Research Paper Example Despite the risks, project management ensures that tasks are completed successfully to their full requirements. Project management should be started earlier before committing resources and continue to the completion of the task. Companies face numerous opportunities to make their projects viable. There are also numerous techniques that can be used in making the project a success. However, successful project management requires the application of good principles rather than implementing available techniques. The principles are normally derived from experience and are valid across all projects. The success of any project is dependent on how a company applies the principles of projects management. The principles of project management include: a) Identify your business and mind your own business. Sigma has its business of providing information technology solutions across the world. The company should then make a selection of projects that are viable to the business. According to research studies, half of project management is about paying attention. Sigma should learn and apply the best practices. b) Understand customer needs and requirements and put them under version control. Sigma should gather comprehensive information on customer requirements and document the requirements under version control. ... d) Create a competent team with clear tasks. The projected team should include trustworthy and competent members. The team should have their tasks well defined and provided with the necessary working tools. Sigma is expected to offer training to team members to ensure that the project is carried out according to plans. The team should have a team leader and any misfits within the group should be removed. e) Make a follow up on progress and conduct reviews. Projects may have faults and this can only be identified by tracking the progress of the project and review the progress frequently to identify potential loopholes that may be present in the project. The progress should be viewed in a very wide spectrum and pay attention to indicators in order to identify problems before they go out of hand. f) Use baseline controls. Managing the project requires a cost and schedule baseline tracking in handling changes. The changes should be managed deliberately. Sigma is expected to measure probl em areas and apply quantitative methods in tracking the progress of the project towards providing solutions to the identified problems. g) Note down important information and share it among team members. It is important to record requirements, design and management structure and the plan for the project to ensure the improvement of concepts and ideas. Proper documentation ensures that the project has baseline controls and a process that can be revisited. Decision and their rationale should be recorded for future application. h) Conduct tests on various cases. A project work requires decisions that have been tested and their potential outcome known. This reduces uncertainty in conducting some activities. Sigma is expected to develop test cases early enough in order to

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 25

Leadership - Essay Example There must be procedures and policies that are vital in managing a program and therefore failure to successfully communicate these may interfere with success of the project. Workers need to understand basic information required in doing their jobs and therefore effective communication is really weighty in getting the job done. According to West (2012), there are always limited resources and time constraints that ought to be completed. Failure to accomplish project on time may indicate overall project failure and therefore all the resources both human and materials should be allocated in the most efficient way. Improper utilization of resources may break the smooth running of the project and eventually lead to terrible program failure. Also, resources and time play a major role in the estimation of the project. These two elements are very expensive and are the reason behind program budgeting and estimations. Failure to control resources and time may heighten the cost of the project. Indeed, resources and time are very important aspects of any project and are vital in determining long term health of the project. Managers are required to manage their conflicts democratically with a clear distinction between substantive and personal issues. In managing interpersonal conflicts, leaders need to be prepared with information that is more detailed and multiple alternatives to enhance the quality of their debate. Availability of more data, which are objective based, compel managers to focus on issues rather than personal matters or useless arguments rooted in ignorance. Inadequate information makes management rely mostly on guesses and baseless assumptions that do not help the program (West, 2012). Reliance on facts reduces involvement on personal issues and eventually interpersonal conflicts. In addition, administrators need to use humor and share a common goal in debates while maintaining a balanced power structure. Furthermore,

Rennaisance Humanist Movement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rennaisance Humanist Movement - Essay Example Therefore, this paper analyzes the difference between their ideologies on liberty and their earlier views about the Catholic Church. Martin Luther started his protests about the protestant reformation through his first essays by attacking the Catholic Church. These assertions may not be the truth as Martin Luther started his mission in 1511 to Rome as a delegate to protest about the Straupitz improvements. He was enlightened with the catholic knowledge due to his earlier knowledge as a monk and a priest. Luther was able to see deceptive and corruptions in the Catholic Church. He was in a position to develop views about the church and God after he became close to the church. Earlier in his life, he had limited faith in God but he based his beliefs on personal experiences he had with God. He further believed that God had deserted him and thus he punished himself through starvation. Starvation could act as a cleansing mechanism to remove all the impurities, which God refuted. According to Luther, man’s relationship with God was through purification that all things could together, praise, and love God. Other people could not find peace with God due to personal conflict. He spread his understanding of the bible to save the oppressed to overcome the battle with the church. Luther maintained that salvation was not just through laws or works, but also through God’s work. This is a biblical allusion where salvation also demands God’s glory and righteousness that man has done and by his mercy and the work of his grace which we have believed. According to Luther, a person who believed in God and his personal relationship with Him meant that the church had no mandate to condemn that believer because he could not afford to pay the taxes or attend the church proceedings each Sunday. Furthermore, the church had no mandate to control people’s personal life and their God’s beliefs. People had the right to elect their own pastors to resolve the corruption cases. This was after the new understanding about the new relationship between God and man. Therefore, God’s word should arise from people with similar views as others. In this regard, the new free cities could not elude this, which relived them from paying taxes. Through his theological views, church powers were contained in its own state. Several towns launched complains about the powers and high influence that the church had. This proved that the church possessed too many powers over the city-states. Machiavelli had different views from what Luther earlier asserted. He asserted that the key quality in any true person is the value of the word he has. In the prince, the author expresses his deep feelings about the person in the story of one prince. He values integrity for he wishes that the prince keeps his word. In our daily live, all princes who have successfully accomplished great deeds have cared less about keeping their valued promises and have good knowledg e on handling men in a shrewd manner. Machiavelli posits that people were in a position to do things that are more important but they may be interfered by laziness, which hinders them from accomplishing their tasks. Furthermore, the individuals may be too manipulative to allow their efforts go unrewarded. He likened this to the princes whose skills aided them acquire the principles with some difficult but they easily hold on and the growth of the

Interpersonal Communication Distinguish Between 2 Different Type of Communication Essay Example for Free

Interpersonal Communication Distinguish Between 2 Different Type of Communication Essay This paper was a little difficult for me to write at first because I have never had to analyze my own communication styles and apply concepts to the type of communication styles I have encountered. Here is to learning how to understand communication and the different styles we encounter every day. I spent a lot of this past week encountering a lot of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communications is communicating through wordless messages. I have been sick and this has been the most sufficient and effective form of communication for me. While I was in the hospital, to effectively communicate to the nurse my needs sometimes I had to use gestures or facial expressions to let her know I was hungry or letting her know the room temperature was hot. Facial expressions are one of our primary means of conveying emotions. Deaf people rely on facial expressions and gestures to communicate. The machine I was hooked up to, to let the nurse know my stats, I believe is also form of communication. I believe it communicated to the nurse that I was not getting proper oxygen saturation so she was able to increase my oxygen intake base on what was communicated to her. I had a hard time speaking, so I did sometimes have to make some noises to let the nurse know I was in pain and needed assistance. She was able to understand my request and assist me accordingly. I also did a lot of online communication. I sent a lot of emails and messages to communicate with friends and family. I also have spent a lot of time listening. Listening is making an effort to hear something and to pay attention to either what is being said or the non-verbal communication gestures or messages given to you. Hearing what someone is saying to you is completely different then actually listening. Effective listening is to understand what is being said to you. I had to understand what the Dr. was explaining to me to be able to recover in a timely manner. I also had to remember to put into practice what the Dr. telling me in regards to my care. Remembering is an important stage of listening. Remembering is important because it can help me from getting into a sticky situation such as the Doctor asking me any questions regarding my treatment. If I was just hearing him and not listening and remembering what he said I would not be able to answer his questions accurately. I had to interpret what he was saying. I had to understand what was critical to my care as of right now and what I need to implement once I recover. I did this by listening to his words as well as watching his gestures and facial expressions. At some point I had to respond to the Doctor. I had to make him aware I was listening and remembering what he said I needed to do. I usually nodded my head and made direct eye contact given it was hard for me to communicate verbally until the last day. On the day of my discharge I was able to paraphrase to him what he needed me to do in order to recover and to maintain my health. When looking at this experience of listening, I would say it would be considered informational listening. I was engage to learn, taking information in so I was able to properly care for myself outside of the hospital and what I needed to do to keep from returning back.

Lord Of The Flies By William Golding Philosophy Essay

Lord Of The Flies By William Golding Philosophy Essay In this paper I chose to analyze the book Lord of the flies written by William Golding as I believe it matches very well the field of organizational theory by presenting the contrast between different styles of leadership and the opposed actions of two very different leaders. I will emphasize four types of leadership styles: democratic, autocratic, laissez-faire and charismatic. I chose this book because in the novel, leadership plays a very important role, as it does in real life for us, because the characters need to feel some sense of security in order for them to survive. The situational leadership theory proposes that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making: for example in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate, in other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective. The fundamental underpinning of the situational leadership theory is that there is no single best style of leadership. Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most successful leaders are those that adapt their leadership style to the maturity of the individual or group they are attempting to lead or influence. Effective leadership varies, not only with the person or group that is being influenced, but it also depends on the task, job or function that needs to be accomplished. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situa tional_leadership_theory) The existence of mankind on earth relies on various factors: the basic needs for humans to survive are food, water, shelter, but these are only the physical needs of man. Humans also have social and mental needs which require the existence of law in order to be able to coexist peacefully with themselves, the nature and the environment. The only way that law and order can be achieved in human society is by a higher authority, or some form of government or leader. William Golding tries to touch on some of these aspects of our civilization through the various characters he creates in his novel Lord of the Flies. (http://www.bookrags.com/essay-2005/12/13/185154/04/) The main theme of the novel is the conflict between two opposed instincts that exist within all human beings: the instinct to live by rules, act peacefully, follow moral commands, and value the good of the group against the instinct to gratify ones immediate desires, act violently to obtain supremacy over others, and enforce ones will. The two main leaders in the story, through their similar and different leadership characteristics and objectives fight back and forth to gain the discipline of the other boys on the island in order to gain the power to make the decisions that they feel should be made, sometimes for the better of the entire group, and sometimes for their own purpose. The leaders which are presented throughout the novel all have their own method of leading, and serve different purposes. The elected and democratic leader is Ralph while the self-appointed leader who tries to run a totalitarian society is Jack. In the beginning they work towards common goals, but eventually their different views on how to lead the group lead them into conflict. From the very beginning Ralph assumes primary responsibility for the groups tasks when he starts organizing their living, because he realizes that not doing so will result in savagery and moral chaos (Hynes, 59). Being aware of the situation in which they are, Ralph uses Piggys idea of the conch and takes the role of gathering the survivors. When the boys arrive in the island they automatically seek for some kind of law and order, since there are not any grown-ups. They want to belong to a group, with someone in charge to lead them, and make them feel safe. Ralph becomes this person, after being chosen in a democratic election. He tries to hear what everybody has to say. Let him be chief with the trumpet thing (Golding, 30). The conch is a symbol of democracy because it entitles everyone to having an opinion in all matters of importance. It also symbolizes law and order, everything which Ralph stands for. Although he is accepted as a leader in the beginning, his priorities as a leade r and way of thinking create conflict with some of the others. Theres another thing. We can help them to find us. If a ship comes near the island they might not notice us. So we must make a smoke on top of the mountain. We must make a fire. (Golding, 49) When one observes Ralphs actions, it becomes obvious that he is not only a task-motivated leader, but also a democratic leader, which results from the fact that he leads an expedition through the forest in order to find out if the island is deserted or not. Ralph also wants shelters to be built where they can sleep, branches to be collected for a signal fire and a specific place beyond the bathing-pool to be used as a lavatory. Furthermore, he introduces rules when he tells the boys that they have to have Hands up like at school (Golding, 31) and that only the person holding the conch is allowed to speak. In addition, the conch makes the boys feel they participate; when holding it they get a chance to speak their mind and the others must listen. It is a significant trait for a democratic leader to aim for an environment of equality. Without a doubt, Ralph is also a relationship-motivated leader. He is compassionate and caring when he tries to comfort the littluns (Golding, 61) by saying there is no beast to be afraid of. He is interested in what the other boys think and he listens to them and what they have to say before he makes decisions. His closest follower, Piggy, thinks a great deal about what has to be done and how they can do it and Ralph brings up Piggys ideas at the assemblies. In brief, these are all examples that support the fact that Ralph is a complex leadership figure. He wants to be a sympathetic and egalitarian leader who does not avoid his responsibilities, but he is only twelve years old and has neither the experience needed for the task, nor the support from the other boys. In the beginning, all the boys stand by the rules set by Ralph. After a while this society starts to break up as man has a way of choosing the easiest way out. The boys get tired of the responsibility and want to play, hunt and have fun. They do not want to get rescued as they are enjoying themselves too much. When moving on to the authoritarian leader, represented by Jack, we find a character who starts his advance for the role of leader at the very first assembly when he states that he is the rightful leader of the schoolboys since he is the head boy in the choir. He is arrogant and disrespectful when he yells at his choir and bullies Piggy by screaming Shut up Fatty! (Golding, 17). Jack feels humiliated when Ralph is elected. Although he temporarily gives in, Jack soon starts using different strategies to undermine Ralphs authority, and at the same time making himself more powerful. He stirs up the group by lying about Ralph having said that the hunters are bad at hunting. And even though Jack is the one who suggests that they need rules, and is quick to point out that the one who breaks them will be punished, he soon breaks them himself when he, for instance, speaks without holding the conch or makes himself heard above the other speakers (Olsen, 13). These actions are unopposed and we aken Ralphs leadership, and according to Kirsten Olsen it is the breaking of old rules and making his own (Olsen, 14) that paves the way for Jack coming to power. After being publicly humiliated when his attempt to have Ralph unseated fails, Jack decides to leave the group and have a fort of his own. Cunningly he tries to win people over from Ralphs camp by accusing him of being a coward and a bad hunter. Jack also offers the hungry boys meat if they leave Ralph and join his group instead. Not surprisingly most boys rather eat pork and play than pick berries and do tiresome chores under Ralphs command. As a result of Jacks behavior, one notices how Ralphs leadership style gradually changes into a laissez-faire leader. At one point he wonders what is going on: Things are breaking up. I dont understand why. We began well; we were happy (Golding, 87). Later he talks to the assembled boys and asks: Which is better, law and rescue, or hunting and breaking things up?(Golding, 200). According to Ralph the first alternative is the only possible one, but the others do not seem to agree with him. Jack is a charismatic leader who paints his face with clay before he goes hunting for pigs. The hunters join Jack because they feel as if the mask on Jacks face commands them to do so. Most boys just do what the leader says, or what the majority does, without thinking in terms of right and wrong or friendship, since they are afraid to be on their own, or even worse, a target of the other boys aggressions. Compared to the democratic leader Ralph, Jack is an authoritarian leader who yells at his peers to make his point, threatens them into obedience, makes them commit crimes as well as actually hurting them physically. An example of Jacks tactics when he finally is in power is the situation where he orders his subordinates to tie up the twins Sam and Eric, and then turns to Ralph, saying: See? They do what I want (Golding, 199). As a consequence of Jacks increasing number of followers, Ralph finds himself being the leader of only a few boys. One person, though, who never abandons him is Piggy, the representative of common sense. He desperately tries to adjust the situation on the island to conditions more like those at home and he asks: What are we? Humans? Or animals? Or savages? Whats grown-ups going to think? Going off hunting pigs letting fires out - (Golding, 98). Compared to Jack, who leads a primary group, the choir, Ralph, with the exception of Piggy, does not have a group of close and loyal allies. A typical example of how Ralph is betrayed by some of his followers is the actions of twins Sam and Eric. They try to avoid conflicts, and therefore never openly take a stand for Ralph. The end of Ralphs leadership is a fact when Jack and his band of hunters have killed Simon and Piggy, the two most devoted boys. There are no more boys to lead, and without followers Ralph can no longer be a leader. In conclusion, both leaders have different characteristics and priorities, which make them lead the group in different ways. Ralph is considered to be the elected leader and Jack the self-appointed leader. These leaders have different skills and different views on how to create society, which leads them into many conflicts. This just goes to show that humans cannot be trusted with power, as power corrupts. The moment Jack becomes the leader of his own group he turns into a savage and does things without thinking. The same can be said about governments in the world today, who start wars with the purpose of fulfilling their own needs, and they do not mind harming others to achieve their goals and objectives. Maybe humans really are savages that cannot live in peace and coexist on this earth with all the animals and the environment. It might be quite possible that Goldings view of humans as being the worst creatures on earth, is not very hard to comprehend, as you can relate to the conf licts created by leadership that are seen throughout the world.

The Death of Creativity in Brave New World :: Brave New World

The Death of Creativity in Brave New World      Ã‚  Ã‚   Aldous Huxley, in his distopian novel,Brave New World, presents a horrifying view of a possible future in which society has become a prisoner of the very technology it hoped would save us.   In Brave New World Huxley's distortion of technology, religion, and family values, is much more effective than his use of literary realism found in his depiction of a savage reservation. Through his use of distortion Huxley tells a classic tale with the theme of, be careful what you wish for, because it may not truly be what you wanted.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Huxley effectively uses distortion in -Brave New World through his depiction of social values of the future. For example, when Barnard Marx hears somebody talking about Lenina in the locker room, he becomes upset. Leaving the building, everyone he passes recommends soma for his bad mood. Huxley shows the reader that drug use is becoming more and more an acceptable way out for a weak society.   He is showing society that we are becoming emotionally incapable of dealing with pain and hurt. Furthermore, the students, while speaking with the director of the London Hatchery, are told at one time people were viviparous, and were disgusted and outraged. Huxley is trying to warn society that its lack of commitment and endurance will eventually be its downfall.   Lack of the experience of pregnancy severs the emotional ties of the woman and her child.   An emotionless society feels no guilt.   In addition, Lenina, when accused of lack of promiscuity by Fanny while in the locker room, religiously denies it. Monogamy requires commitment, pain, and work.   Huxley is predicting humans progressing to a society of people who are unable to focus on anything but pleasure; unable to handle the work of a commitment.   He knew the road we were on would lead the wrong way.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Huxley also uses distortion to open peoples eyes to the world of religion.   For example, Bernard Marx hurries and frets about being late to his orgy-porgy session because he is running behind.   Huxley's prediction of the church moving away from God and towards man is becoming evident even sixty-three years after his book appeared.   Church figures, such as, Jim Bakker and Jimmy Swaggert, have appeared numerous times on the news and in the papers for using the church for money and sex.   Furthermore, when Bernard and Lenina visit the reservation they are appalled at the practice of a cross of Christianity and Hinduism.  Ã‚   A warning that lack of religious tolerance could be one of the greatest downfalls of our time.

Network VPN and Web Security Cryptography Essay

Securing Internet commercial transactions and sensitive banking data is increasingly becoming critical as threats to computer networks continue to cause significant financial losses resulting from data damage, loss or corruption by spy ware, viruses and other data corrupting hostile codes (Mogollon, 2007). The consequences of having weak security system administration become enormous and companies should step up their security measures to protect sensitive data by cryptographic methods. In online transactions, the secure Web server communicates with the client’s computer by authenticating each other. They do this by enciphering the data which is transmitted by means specific protocols such as transport layer security (TLS), Internet protocol security (IPsec) and secure socket layer (SSL). All Web browsers such as Internet Explorer and Netscape have in-built TLS and SSL protocols. To make internet transactions safe, the problems associated with end-user certificate distribution have to be solved and this was the challenge that led to the fall of secure electronic transaction (SET) technology after its introduction in 1990s (Mogollon, 2007). This paper will discuss important technologies behind VPN SSL and website encryption paying critical attention to algorithms which make encryption in financial systems such as the Internet commercial transactions possible and secure. In particular, the paper addresses advanced and critical issues in online transactions as one of the areas applying cryptography and network security. The Need for Network Security in Financial Systems The modern online commerce and financial systems are rapidly growing partly because several protocols for Web encryption are often implemented hence ensuring secure transactions. In a practical scenario, online clients buying commodities enter the credit card number online and then hit the â€Å"Submit† button. While this information is provided online and can be deciphered by hackers, the Web browser commits to secure this online transaction by enciphering the transmitted data (Mogollon, 2007). Secure communication between the client and the server requires client-server authentication which is a cryptographic key exchange involving an agreement of both parties. The client and the server will agree on a common pre-master secret code or key. Data is then enciphered using the keys which are generated from the agreed pre-master key. This communication agreement between the client and server also involves the decisions on which versions and protocols to use such as SSL2, SSL3, TLS1. 0, and TLS 1. 1 (Mogollon, 2007). They will also agree on which cryptographic algorithm to use and whether to authenticate to each other or not. The use of certain techniques of public-key encryption which generate the pre-master secret key will also be agreed on. Both have to make an agreement that session keys are to be created to help in the enciphering of the messages. Virtual Private Network (VPN) A virtual private network (VPN) serves as an extension of a private network which encompasses links across public or shared networks such as the Internet (Mogollon, 2007). VPN enables users to send data between two interconnected computers across a public or shared network in a way that it emulates point-to-point private link properties. Virtual private networking is the technique of creating and configuring VPN and it emulates point-to-point links (Mogollon, 2007). There should be data encapsulation or wrapping with headers to provide routing information thus allowing it to traverse the public or shared transit internetwork and attain its endpoint. At the same time, to emulate private links, the sent data must be encrypted for security and confidentiality (Microsoft Corporation, 2003). The packets intercepted on public or shared networks cannot be deciphered without the use of encryption keys. Private data is encapsulated in a connection portion known as the tunnel and it is encrypted in a connection portion known as the VPN connection (Microsoft Corporation, 2003). Fig 1. 1 Figure 1. 1: Virtual private network connection (Microsoft Corporation, 2003) The VPN connection provide the capabilities for remote users while at homes, branch offices or even while traveling to securely connect to remote organizations’ servers by the use of routing infrastructure which is provided by a shares or public network like the Internet(Microsoft Corporation, 2003). Since the creation of VPN connection is facilitated by the Internet from anywhere, these networks require strong security mechanisms to avoid any unwelcome private network access and to protect private data while traversing the public network (Microsoft Corporation, 2003). These security mechanisms include data encryption and authentication as well as other advanced VPN security measures such as certificate-based authentication. Virtual private network security (VPNs) is provided by the Internet Protocol security (IPsec), TLS and SSL (Mogollon, 2007). IPsecVPN are commonly used in several enterprises but they are not as easy to use as SSLVPN. Another difference between IPsec VPN and SSL VPN is that IPsec VPN works at Layer 3 and creates a tunnel into networks. This way, IPsec allows for devices to log on as if they have physical connections to the local area network (LAN) (Mogollon, 2007). On the other hand, the SSL VPN work at the application Layer 4 and users can have access to individual applications through the Web browser. In SSLVPN, the administrators can dictate the access by applications instead of providing entire network access. VPN emulates the facility of private wide area network (WAN) by the use of private Internet Protocol (IP) and public internet backbones (Mogollon, 2007). Secure Socket Layer Virtual Private Network (SSLVPN) Security networks particularly those used in online transactions demand increasingly complex cryptographic systems and algorithms (Lian, 2009). Therefore, there is need for individuals concerned with the implementation of security policies in companies to use technical knowledge and skill in information technology in order to implement critical security mechanisms. Unlike the traditional IPsec VPN which requires the use of special client software on computers of end users, the SSL VPN such as Web SSL VPN requires no installation of such software (Lian, 2009). SSLVPN is mainly designed to provide remote users access to various client-server applications, Web application as well as internal network connections. SSL VPN authenticates and encrypts client-server communication (Lian, 2009). Two types of SSL VPNs are recognized: the SSL Portal VPN and SSL Tunnel VPN (Lian, 2009). The SSL Portal VPN usually allows a single SSL to connect to the website while allowing secure access to a number of network services by end users. This common website is known as the portal because it serves as a single door leading to a number of resources. The site is usually a single page having links to other pages. The second example of SSLVPN is the SSL Tunnel VPN which allows Web browsers, and thus users to safely access a number of multiple network services as well as protocols and applications which are not Web-based (Lian, 2009). Access is mainly provided via a tunnel which runs under SSL. The SSL Tunnel VPN requires all browsers to have the capacity to support active content that makes them to have more functionality not possible with SSL Portal VPN. The active content supported by SSL Tunnel VPN includes Active X, Java, JavaScript and plug-ins or Flash applications (Lian, 2009). Secure Socket Layer (SSL) provides a standardized communication encryption deployed for the purpose of protecting a number of protocols (Lian, 2009). For instance, most online transacting sites such as PayPal, AlertPay and MoneyBookers have their Universal Resource Locator (URL) address beginning with â€Å"https://† instead of â€Å"http://. † This means that the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (Http) is wrapped inside the SSL (Lian, 2009). Cryptography and Encryption Cryptography is concerned with the development of algorithms where data is written secretly thus the names, crypto-meaning secret and –graphy, meaning writing (Li, n. d). Cryptography basically provides a number of ways to confirm data security during VPN communication. These various means or algorithms include hash, cipher, digital signature, authentication and key generation (Lian, 2009). Cryptography endeavors to conceal the actual context of data from everyone except the recipient and the sender hence maintaining secrecy or privacy. Cryptography also verifies or authenticates the correctness or validity of data to recipients in virtual private network. As a result of this, cryptography has been the basis of a number of technological solutions to problems such as communication and network security in share networks such as that in VPN. In general, cryptography can be defined as the technique exploiting the methods and principles of converting intelligible data into unintelligible one and then changing it back to the original form (Li, n. d). SSL VPN encryption involves the adoption of traditions and novel algorithms of encryption in the protection of sensitive data such as the one exchanged during online transactions. The original data is transformed into secure data with specific algorithm of encryption by the use of the encryption key. At the same time, the encrypted data can be decrypted back into its original state with the help of algorithms of decryption. Sometimes, attacks to data are common in networked systems where hackers break into systems to obtain the original data which has not been encrypted. The present research focuses on the efficient algorithms of encryption and decryption which are secure against these attacks (Lian, 2009). Typical VPN Encryption Algorithms VPN encryption utilizes a number of encryption algorithms to secure flowing traffic across a shared or public network (Malik, 2003). The encryption of VPN connections is done so as to allow VPN and Web traffic to traverse share or public network like the Internet. Example of encrypted VPN is the SSL VPN and IPsec which uses encryption algorithms to safely allow traffic across shared or public network such as the Internet (Malik, 2003). Apart from classifying VPN in terms of encryption, classification of VPN can also be based on the model of OSI layer which they are constructed in. this is an important classification as the encrypted VPN only allows specific amount of traffic which gets encrypted and the degree of transparency to VPN clients (Malik, 2003). Classification of VPN based on the OSI model layers recognizes three types of VPNs: data link layer, network layer and application layer VPNs (Malik, 2003). Algorithms used for encryption can be classified into partial encryption, direct encryption and compression-combined encryption (Lian, 2009). According to the number of keys used, algorithms can also be classified into asymmetrical and symmetrical algorithms. In general, different encryption algorithms encrypt data volumes hence acquiring different efficiency and security. It therefore remains a decision of system security administrators to select which algorithm to use which will provide the best VPN security (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). There is no single encryption algorithm which is efficient to address all situations (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). However, there are basic factors to consider when selecting the type of algorithm to use in VPN security. Strong encryption algorithms always consume more resources in computer systems compared to weaker encryption algorithms. Long encryption keys are considered to offer stronger securities than the shorter keys. Therefore, Chief Security Officer (CSOs) should decide on longer keys to enhance system securities (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). Asymmetric algorithms are also considered stronger than the symmetric ones since they use different keys (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). However, asymmetric algorithms of encryption are slower compared to symmetric ones. Experts also prefer block ciphers as they use loner keys hence offer stronger security compared to stream ciphers. Passwords that are long and complex seem to offer better security than shorter and simpler passwords which can be broken easily by hackers. It should be factor to consider the amount of data which is being encrypted. If large amounts of data are to be encrypted, then symmetric keys are to be used to encrypt the data and asymmetric keys should be used to encrypt the symmetric keys. It is also critical to compress data before encrypting because it is not easy to compress data once it has been encrypted (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). Direct encryption involves the encryption of data content with either traditional or novel cipher directly. Partial encryption involves the encryption of only significant portions of data and other parts are left unencrypted (Microsoft Corporation, 2003). Compression-combined encryption involves the combinations of encryption operation with compression operation which are simultaneously implemented. Comparably, direct encryption offers the highest data security as it encrypts largest volumes of data. However, this method has the lowest efficiency as it takes much time encrypting all data volumes. The reduction of data volumes in partial and compression-combined encryptions result to lower security but with highest efficiency (Lian, 2009). There are specific examples of ciphering algorithms used by most online companies to protect sensitive and private data such as business data, personal messages or passwords for online banking. The commonly used ciphering algorithms include the DES/3 DES, RC4, SEAL and Blowfish (MyCrypto. net, n. d). Data encryption in VPN client-server communications is critical for data confidentiality. This is because data is passed between VPN clients and VPN servers over a public or shared network which often poses risks of illegal data interception by the hackers. However, VPN servers can be configured to force communication encryption. The encryption will force VPN clients connecting to VPN servers to encrypt their data or else be denied connections. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 employs two different types of encryptions: the Internet Protocol security (IPSec) encryption that uses the Layer Two Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) and Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) which used Point –to –Point Tunneling Protocol (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). In telephone communication or dial-up clients, data encryption is not necessary between the clients and their Internet Service Providers (ISP) since the encryption is always carried out with VPN client-VPN server connections. This implies that mobile users using dial-up connections to dial local ISPs need not to encrypt anything since once the Internet connection has been established, the users can create VPN connection with corporate VPN servers. In case VPN connections are encrypted, there is no need for encryption between users and ISPs in dial-up connections (Microsoft Corporation, 2005). VPN encryption generally allows for the attainment of the highest possible security standards made possible by key generation in a certified centre using the RSA, 1024 bit (MyCrypto. net, n. d). Smart card technology especially the TCOS-2. 0 Net Key SmartCard OS (operating system) grant a safe mode for key storage which complies with the evaluation criteria of information security systems (Li, n. d). Different types of encryption algorithms employ proprietary specific methods to generate the secret keys and thus the encryption algorithms become useful in different types of applications (MyCrypto. net, n. d). The length of keys generated by these algorithms determines the strength of encryption. The most common algorithms, DES/3DES, BLOWFISH, IDEA, SEAL, RC4 and RSA have different qualities and capabilities which network security administrators may choose to use in providing VPN security (MyCrypto. net, n. d). The RSA algorithm, developed in 1979 was named after its developers Ron Rivest, Shamir and Adleman hence the name RSA (Riikonen, 2002). RSA supports digital signatures and encryption and it is therefore the most widely used type of public key algorithm. RSA takes advantage of the problem of integer factorization to enhance security and it utilizes both private and public keys. It is one of the algorithms which is easy to understand and it has been patent-free since the year 2000 (Riikonen, 2002). RSA is commonly used for securing IP data, transport (SSL/TSL) data, emails, terminal connections and conferencing services. Its security entirely depends on the randomness of the numbers generated by the Pseudo Random Number Generator (PRNG). Data Encryption Standard/ Triple Data Encryption Standard (DES/3DES) has widely been used as a standard in banking institutions in Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) as well as in UNIX OS password encryption (MyCrypto. net, n. d). DES/3DES allows the authentication of Personal Identification Number (PIN) to be made possible. While DES is basically a 64-bit block cipher, it uses 56-bit keys in encryption and most users don’t regard it as advances in computer technology continue to transform the banking and online industry (MyCrypto. net, n. d). DES has been found to be vulnerable to some cyberattacks and experts have now recommended 3DES as the stronger option. 3DES has the ability to encrypt data 3 times hence the name 3DES. It uses different keys for all the three passes and this gives it a total cumulative of 112-168 bit key size (MyCrypto. net, n. d). IDEA (International Data Encryption Algorithm) is another type of algorithm first developed by Prof. Massey and Dr. Lai in the wake of 1990s in Switzerland (MyCrypto. net, n. d) . It was meant to replace DES algorithm but one of the weaknesses of DES is that it uses a common key for both encryption and decryption and it only operates on 8 bytes at every incident. The success of IDEA in enhancing security lies on the length of its 128-bit key which makes hackers difficult to break especially those who try out every key. To present, there are no known means of breaking the IDEA 128-bit key other than trying each key at a time which is also difficult (MyCrypto. net, n. d). This then makes the algorithm better for security. Since it is a fast algorithm, IDEA has been implemented in most hardware chipsets to male them run faster (MyCrypto. net, n. d). Just like IDEA and DES, Blowfish represent another type of a symmetric block cipher which tales a varying key length ranging from 32 to 448 bits (MyCrypto. net, n. d). This makes it ideal for both exportable and domestic use. Developed in 1993 by Bruce Schneier, Blowfish became not only a fast alternative but also a free option to the other existing algorithms of encryption. Blowfish is now becoming more accepted by many experts because of its strong encryption properties (MyCrypto. net, n. d). Software-optimized Encryption Algorithm (SEAL), developed by Coppersmith and Rogaway is an example of a stream cipher where data is encrypted continuously (MyCrypto. net, n. d). Stream ciphers represent a group of algorithms which are faster compared to block ciphers such as IDEA, Blowfish and DES. However, stream ciphers have an extended initialization phase whereby a secure harsh algorithm is used to complete the set of tables (MyCrypto. net, n. d). It is considered a very fast algorithm as it uses 160 bit key for the purpose of encryption. In addition, SEAL is considered one of the safest algorithms used to protect data from hackers and thus, it can be used in managing passwords in financial systems (MyCrypto. net, n. d). Ciphers and Encryption Ciphers transform plaintext into secured ciphertext and then recover it back from ciphertext with the help of keys (Li, n. d). This way, data is kept private during client-server communication this providing maximum VPN and Web security. The transformation into plaintext and the recovery from ciphertext is commonly known as encryption and decryption respectively. During the decryption process, a key is required and without the key, correct plaintext recovery is not possible. There are several types of ciphers widely known and have been classified according to their properties. Ciphers can be classified as to either symmetric or asymmetric ciphers (Li, n. d). In symmetric ciphers, the decryption key used in cryptography is the same as that used in encryption. The operation for decrypting is often symmetric to the encrypting operation in symmetric ciphers (Li, n. d). In asymmetric ciphers, the decryption operations are never symmetric to encryption operations hence the keys used might differ (Lian, 2009). A simple model for showing asymmetric and symmetric ciphers is as shown below in Fig 2. 1 (a) and (b). Fig 2. 1(a) and (b) (a) Symmetric cipher (b) Asymmetric cipher Fig 2. 1 (a) and (b): Symmetric and asymmetric ciphers (Lian, 2009) In the models shown above, symmetric cipher use same key (K0) in encryption and decryption while asymmetric cipher use different keys (K1) and (K1) for encryption and decryption respectively (Lian, 2009). Since in asymmetric cipher the key is similar in both encryption and decryption operations, the key is known both to the sender and the receiver but not to the third party and it should always be kept private. Otherwise, the third party can decrypt the ciphertext and expose the ciphertext as plaintext. This is why the asymmetric cipher is also known as the private cipher. However, symmetric ciphers such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Data Encryption Standard (DES) and International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) have widely been used despite some vulnerabilities of ciphertext decryption by third parties (Lian, 2009). Asymmetric ciphers offer advanced security as the encryption key (K1) can securely be made public but the decryption key (K2) is safely kept private only made known to the receiver. This means that if the sender and the third party only knows one key (the encryption key), he is not able to decrypt the ciphertext hence maintaining maximum network security. The asymmetric cipher is therefore known as the public cipher and the symmetric cipher, private cipher. Asymmetric cipher or public ciphers are regarded more suitable particularly for key exchanges in online communications and internet commercial transactions. The reasons which make public ciphers suitable for VPN securities are for instance the difficulties in large number factorization in RSA cipher. The problem of the discrete logarithm is the concept behind the suitability of Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). The ElGamal encryption is also regarded to offer suitable securities because of the problem with complex computing of discrete logarithms as the encryption is always defines over a wide range of cyclic groups. Cryptanalysis and Security Attacks Cryptanalysis techniques allow hackers to break easily into cipher systems in VPN. According to Kerckhoffs principle, the hacker clearly knows the cipher per se and the security of the cipher is largely depended on the private key (Lian, 2009). Cryptanalysis techniques employed by attackers aim to get access to the cipher’s private key with the aim of knowing the information as plaintext, ciphertext or even encryption algorithm. Cryptanalysis methods can be grouped into four categories according to the information best known to the attackers (Lian, 2009). The attack based on only ciphertext means that the attack only progresses after the attacker has known ciphertext collection. This method is known as ciphertext-only attack (Lian, 2009). Known-plaintext attack is another cryptanalysis method which means that the attack method will only be successful when the hacker has obtained pairs of plain-text-ciphertext sets. Another attack method is the chosen-plaintext attack which progresses only when the hacker has ciphertexts which correspond to arbitrary plaintexts sets. The last possible method of attack is the related-key attack which works after the attacker has obtained ciphertext which are encrypted using two dissimilar keys (Lian, 2009). Encryption algorithms security is determined by the resistance to cryptanalysis techniques including attacks like differential analysis, statistical attack and relate-key attacks. Ciphers used for network VPN and Web security should be analyzed thoroughly before they can be used, otherwise, attackers will break into systems when ciphers don’t provide the required maximum network security. Simple metrics can be employed in measuring resistance to cryptographic analysis and common attacks of ciphers. These metrics include plaintext sensitivity, key sensitivity and ciphertext randomness (Lian, 2009). It can therefore be said that the cryptographic algorithm is of high security only when the encryption algorithm is heavily secured against cryptographic analysis and attacks. In case the algorithm doe not provide this essential requirement, the encryption algorithm is then considered to be of low security. Key sensitivity refers to changes in ciphertext as a result of changes in keys. Good ciphers will recognize the slightest difference in keys and cause significant changes in ciphertext. Plain text sensitivity is almost similar to plaintext sensitivity and is defines as the alteration in ciphertext as a result of plaintext changes. Good ciphers should also be able to recognize any slight difference in plaintext changes and therefore cause significant ciphertext changes. Ciphertext randomness basically differs from the plaintext. In good ciphers, the ciphertext always has good randomness which makes it hard for attackers to establish holes in statistical properties of ciphertexts (Lian, 2009). Ciphers transform original intelligible data into a form which is unintelligible by the help of keys. This method is used to secure data confidentiality. Hash always uses the original data to generate short strings used to protect data integrity. Digital signatures employ the key-based hash in the generation of hash values for the data which is to be protected. Digital signatures are often used in the detection whether operations are done by the authenticated owner or not. This is critical in online transactions such as those involving online payment methods such as AlertPay, PayPal and MoneyBookers. Key generation and authentication provide critical methods which help in the generation and distribution of multiple keys during communication. Hackers use cryptoanalytical methods to analyze and break into networked systems through cryptographic means. Cryptoanalysis provides some special or common means to analyze hash, cipher, digital signatures or key generation and authentication algorithms securities. The best cryptographic methods in VPN and Web security should be immune to cryptoanalytical methods before they can be applied in system network security. Conclusion Encryption algorithms offer secure communication against cryptanalysis used by attackers such as known-plaintext attack, ciphertext-only attack and select-plaintext attacks. Complete encryption offers security to traditional and novel ciphers against cryptanalysis by hackers. Partial encryption allows some parameters to be encrypted using ciphers which are immune to cryptographic attacks. Compression-combined encryption involves the combination of encryption and comprension operations which make it secure from the perspective of cryptanalysis. VPN encryption utilizes basic encryption mechanisms which secure the traffic flowing across shared or public network. The encryption is critical in allowing VPN traffic to traverse public or shared network like the Internet. Banking systems have always employed complex security measures such as SSL VPN and IPsec VPN to encrypt traffics by the use of encryption algorithm in shared VPN connections. References: Malik, S (2003). Network security principles and practices. Indianapolis, IN: Cisco Press. Mogollon, M (2007). Cryptography and security services: mechanisms and applications. 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